1. Summary:

• On January 7, 2025, hurricane-forced winds impacted Los Angeles County by Santa Ana winds reaching up to 90 miles per hour. (Washington Post, LA Times)  Once fire developed, it spread at an alarming rate, where some homeowners only had minutes to leave their house and evacuate the community. Except for grabbing a few possessions, the remaining contents were either left behind to be consumed by fire or homes became damaged by smoke containing toxic substances and heavy metals. (Caltech Science Exchange; Pasadena Now)  
• Once homeowners return, some individuals experienced respiratory, skin irritation, and neurological disorders that came from the aerosolization of fine particles and the vaporization of smoke, char, ash, dioxins, furans, and heavy metals. (California DIR “Respiratory Requirements During Fire Cleanup, Removal, and Demolition”; Newsweek “California Wildfires: How Smoke Harms Your Body;” Scientific America “What Make Urban Wildfire Smoke So Toxic”) Harmful contaminants came from outside and inside the home, including contents impacted by smoke.
• Protecting the health of people outweighs protecting contents and restoring homes. Individuals who have pre-existing health issues or have immune system disorders should not be near communities and homes affected by smoke particles and toxins. (NIH; ALA; CDC; EPA)
• Environmental professionals, restorers, and adjusters should wear a respirator when inspecting fire damaged, and smoke contaminated buildings (ANSI/IICRC S700; OSHA 1910.134; NIOSH “Guide to the Selection and Use of Particulate Respirators”), because unseen fine particles, asbestos, and heavy metals can be in the air, even when smoke odor is not present.
• The fire can release heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium and chromium that absorb and bind to textiles, fabrics and penetrate upholstery. Cleaning may not remove all of them, leaving behind trace amounts that may result in exposure.
  • EPA and ATSDR recommends contaminated mattresses, and upholstered items should be disposed rather than cleaned if exposed to toxic particles.
  • California DTSC recommends contents contaminated with metals above TTLC/STLC thresholds may be regulated as hazardous waste and require proper disposal.
  • The Red Guide to Recovery recommends porous items that cannot be decontaminated or verified as clean should be considered a total loss.  
• If hazardous materials are present, such as asbestos and lead, homeowners should not attempt cleanup without professional assistance. (LA County DPH “Properties in Indirectly Affected Areas”)

Credit: Patrick Moffett

2. Worker Exposure to Hazardous and Toxic Substances:

After a wildland urban interface (WUI) fire that burnt buildings including framing, roofing, paint, cars, carpets, electronics, furniture, and contents, smoke from the fire contains toxic and hazardous substances, such as asbestos, lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium. (National Academies of Science: “The Chemistry of Fires at the WUI”)

• Hazardous substances in smoke can travel in wind, entering homes that are downwind. (Los Angeles County DPH)
• Houses and contents retain toxic smoke, where porous materials absorb them, such as insulation, carpet, draperies and upholstery. (R&R: “Essential Post-Wildfire Services for Homeowners”)  

3. Worker’s Respiratory Protection:

When inspecting or completing non-hazardous and non-toxic cleanup work, a properly fit and worn N95 respirator should be sufficient to protect the lungs of project supervisors and workers.

• Did the restorer’s “competent person” identify existing and predictable hazards in surrounding and work areas that can affect workers health, along with establishing an assigned respiratory factor (APF) for workers respiratory protection?
• The selection of PPE for example depends on completing a job hazard assessment (JHA) also known as a job hazard analysis (JHA). It includes the implementation of engineering and administrative controls designed to reduce the level of PPE to safe levels. (California Department of Industrial Relations (DIR); OSHA “Job Hazard Analysis”)
• Respirator designated as “N95 / N100” or “P95 / P100” are expected to protect workers from breathing fine particulate matter. (NIOSH; OSHA)
  • However, they “do not” protect technicians from exposure to asbestos fibers, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), gases, vaporized lead or mercury, and other toxic substances. (CDC “Respirators and Mask Types and Performance;” Cal/OSHA “Respiratory Protection Requirements During Fire Cleanup, Removal, and Demolition”)
  • Technicians should wear a half or full-face respirator with HEPA and organic vapor cartridges. (3M; NIOSH)

4. Worker’s Outerwear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

Workers face multiple hazards during fire cleanup, removal, and demolition work. Employers doing this work are required to identify, evaluate, and control these hazards in addition to providing training and personal protective equipment (PPE) to employees. (California Code of Regulations, Title 8, sections 1509, 1511, 1518, 3203, and 5192)

• Outerwear PPE includes “specialized clothing and equipment worn by an employee to protect against a hazard.” (OSHA) Examples include, coveralls and full-body suits, gloves, safety glasses, work boots, hard hats, and respirators.
• In addition, the CDC mentions, workers must wear appropriate outerwear including protective boots, where disposable outerwear is removed and boots are changed before tracking dust containing heavy metals at home. (HHE Report: 2018-0094-3355 (2019))   
• Along with providing workers with the proper PPE and training in their use, employers must provide sanitary toilet, fire extinguishers, first-aid kits, and eye wash materials at every cleanup site. (California CCR Title 8 sections 1922 and 1512)

The type and use of PPE is established by the “competent person” where the restorer assigned this task to them. As mentioned, to establish the type and level of worker protection the competent person completes a JHA before workers enter a contaminated building, touching or moving contents or starting a building cleanup process.

• Part of the JHA that is often missed when working in a wildland urban-interface (WUI) fire, where the community nearby burnt, is completing environmental testing, because hazardous substances produced by the fire are invisible to the naked eye. Testing often includes asbestos and lead, where additional tests screen for other toxic metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, cobalt, mercury and thallium.  

California OSHA “Work Safety and Health During Fire Cleanup,” mentions, workers can be exposed to:

• Arsenic – a known human carcinogen that can also cause nausea and vomiting, and damage to the heart, blood vessels, nerves and skin.
• Asbestos – chronic lung disease and cancer causing.
• Barium – toxic to heart and nervous system in soluble form.
• Cadmium – a known human carcinogen that can also damage the lungs and bones. 
• Chromium – carcinogen; lung and skin irritation.
• Dioxins and furans – a Group 1 carcinogen; cancer causing, immune system suppresser, can damage the liver and reproductive system.
• Lead – damages almost every organ and system in the body, particularly the brain and kidneys, and can damage or cause the loss of an unborn infant. Lead exposure also causes high blood pressure.
• Manganese – can damage the nervous system and cause changes in behavior and cause Parkinson’s-like symptoms, including slowness of movement, stiffness, and tremors.
• Mercury – can damage the central nervous system (including brain damage), kidneys, liver, and lungs.  
• Nickel – can damage the skin and lungs and cause lung and nasal cancer, it is a respiratory sensitizer and  potential carcinogen.  
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) – are carcinogenic and can damage the immune system and skin.
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – are carcinogenic and can damage the liver and skin.
• Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) – may be carcinogenic and can damage the skin.
• Thallium – extremely toxic; affects the nervous system.
• Zinc – can damage the skin and it is respiratory irritant.
• VOCs, SVOCs and PAHs – Burning of wood, plastics, fabrics, paint, electronics. 

Exposure to hazardous substances endanger workers when they:

1. Are breathed in and inhaled when dust is created during cleanup, demolition and removal activities.
2. Are accidentally ingested from contaminated hands, face and facial hair.
3. Have contact and damage skin, eyes, and hair and are absorbed into the body.
4. Contaminate workers’ clothes and vehicles, and are brought home, where they endanger workers’ families. (Cal/OSHA “Worker Safety and Health During Fire Cleanup”)

Credit: Patrick Moffett

From the picture above, one can see signs of fire debris sitting on a table with a glass lamp. However, just by looking at the debris, we cannot see heavy metals or identify the types and amounts of contaminants that can affect workers’ health.

• During a WUI fire, smoke and heavy metals travel from the source of the fire in the airstream, where they enter homes downwind contaminating the structure and contents.
• Smoke is attracted to contents in many ways including capillary action, magnetic and electrostatic attraction, air currents, stack effect and surface-to-air ratio.
• Smoke and heavy metals are also attracted to cooler surfaces in the home that are away from the fire, such as plumbing, metal fixtures, tubs, sinks, electrical, windows and walls.  
• When porous and semi-porous contents are affected by heavy metals, decontamination is often difficult to almost impossible to achieve. In other words, it may not be possible to bring certain contents back to a safe level for use around babies, small children, the elderly and persons having health issues.   

5. Government Regulations and The Restoration Industry:

There are no known “federal” regulations that address cleaning, salvageability, restorability or disposal of contents damaged by or exposed to hazardous chemicals. There are “states,” like California, under the Department of Toxic Substances and Control (DTSC); Hazardous Waste Control Law (HWCL), which implements stricter requirements than those in the federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), that is enforced by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

• Under HWCL, materials such as furniture, insulation and flooring must be evaluated for hazardous waste classification if they contain substances exceeding specific thresholds.

When contents are not classified as hazardous but the exposure to contents can result in a health reaction or experience potential health risks:  

• CDC “Guidance on Cleaning Safely After a Disaster” 
  1. Throw away anything that you can’t clean or dry quickly (such as mattresses, carpeting, carpet padding, rugs, upholstered furniture, cosmetics, stuffed animals, baby toys, pillows, foam-rubber items, books, wall coverings, and paper products).”
     1. This recommendation is based on the understanding that porous materials, like mattresses and upholstered furniture, can absorb contaminants, where they are difficult or impossible to clean thoroughly.
     2. CDC mentions that while the above guidance is general for disasters, it aligns with concerns related to wildfire smoke exposure. Wildfire smoke contains fine particulate matter and toxic compounds that can infiltrate porous materials. Given the challenges in effectively cleaning these items, disposal is often the safest option to prevent ongoing exposure.
• ATSDR “Public Health Assessment Guidance Manual”
  1. “When evaluating exposure to contaminants in the home, consider that porous materials may retain hazardous substances and could be a source of ongoing exposure.”

Government regulations do not provide homeowners or the restoration industry with standards on how contents can be cleaned of heavy metals, toxic substances and other contaminants. The fire damage restoration industry provides limited information on this subject, even though restorers understand that many hard contents can be successfully cleaned and decontaminated. This requires contents to be evaluated as to their ability to have heavy metals removed and brought back to a safe condition. Notice, the terminology is “brought back to a safe condition.” Without extensive testing, that often costs more than the item, the restorer is applying best practices when cleaning. In other words, the restorer cannot guarantee 100% of heavy metals were removed unless post-remediation verification (PRV) was completed by independent professionals.    

Credit: Patrick Moffett

6. Non-Porous Contents Considered “Cleanable and Restorable:” 

• Sealed wood furniture and wood items that did not experience damage to finishes 
• Metal desks, tables, filing cabinets and metal items that did not experience corrosion, discoloration or heat damage.
• Glass surfaces and mirrors, as long as etching did not occur or heat caused cracking.
• Ceramics, porcelains and stoneware as long as pitting did not occur or heat caused cracking.
• Hard plastics, as long as discoloration or melting did not occur 
• Non-porous jewelry that did not discolor or become damaged from exposure 
• Items that can be safely handwashed or dishwasher washed on all sides, such as dishware, silverware, glassware, stemware, plasticware, cooking utensils, pots and pans 
• Items that respond positively to deodorization
• Items that did not bind to them toxic heavy metal residues. 
• Items that can be tested to ensure they are safe to use.

Credit: Patrick Moffett

7. Semi-Porous Contents Considered “Non-Damaged” after Successful Cleaning and Restoration:

Where semi-porous contents are involved, there is a grey area (middle zone) whether they can be successfully cleaned and decontaminated of smoke, VOCs and heavy metals or not. Semi-porous contents are those that are not fully porous such as carpets, rugs, underlayment, clothing, bedding and bed mattresses, paper and cardboard. (In furniture cleaning limitations involves smoke and heavy metals that entered porous surfaces.) Examples of semi-porous contents that may be successfully cleaned and restored includes:

• Leather and vinyl furniture, couches, chairs and bags 
• Wood and laminate furniture and other items 
• Hard surface items that may have lost their finish such as from wear and use
• Natural stone items
• Plastics that are cost effective to clean 
• Items that can be safely hand or dishwasher washed
• Items that can be dismantled and thoroughly cleaned 
• Items that were not exposed to temperatures resulting in damage 
• Items that did not experience corrosion 
• Items that respond positively to deodorization
• Items that did not bind toxic heavy metal residues 
• Items that need to be tested to ensure that they a safe for normal use 

Credit: Patrick Moffett

8. Porous Contents May Be Considered “Damaged” With or Without Cleaning: 

Porous contents are those having microscopic openings, fibers or cellular structures that allow combustion byproducts, VOCs and heavy metals to enter, such as carpets and rugs, draperies, upholstered furniture, shoes, boots, children’s dolls and stuffed toys, including games, baby, children and adult clothing, pillows and bed mattresses, along with books, paper and cardboard.

• Surface or immersion cleaning is expected to remove many combustion byproducts, VOCs and heavy metals. However, after cleaning where smoke odors return, or some items cause a respiratory or skin reaction, they should be placed in the “damaged” category. 
• When certain items are cost effective to clean, they should also be sampled and analyzed, confirming that heavy metals released by the fire are not present and can affect the health of persons. 
• Recognizing there is risk in keeping certain porous contents, where the cost to clean and restore them outweighs the replacement cost value, they should be placed in the “damaged” category.

Credit: Patrick Moffett

9. Electronics and Electromechanical Appliances and Devices:

Shortly after exposure to smoke, ash and heavy metals, electromechanical corrosion can begin to set in, where sometimes it takes weeks and months to occur. 

• Smoke from an urban fire contains numerous acids such as hydrochloric, phosphoric, formic, sulfur dioxide and organic acids caused by the burning of carpet and pad, plastics, upholstery, automobiles, paint, wood and roofing to name a few. 
• Invisible amounts of chloride and sulfate ions form acidic films on electronic components such as metal contacts including circuit paths that attack copper traces, gold-plated contacts, tin solder and component leads. In addition, galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals is accelerated by ionic smoke residues. 
• Appliance having interworking parts that have contact with smoke-ladened air, requires taking them apart to service, clean and corrosion control to electrical and electronic components. 
• Leaving residue behind may result in fire, explosion and overtime, failure of electronics to operate, no matter if they are washing machines, refrigerators, freezers or smaller items having electrical and electronic components such as TVs, computers, monitors, musical instruments, hairdryers, coffee makers, clocks and toasters.

Credit: Patrick Moffett

10. Specialty Items:

Most contents can be cleaned and made free of combustion byproducts, VOCs and heavy metals, but at what cost and who is qualified to complete the work? 

• Contents such as important and valuable legal documents, medical records, books and manuscripts, family photo albums, framed and unframed pictures, collectibles, antiques and items of historical significance, heirlooms Oriental rugs, firearms, musical instruments, computers, jewelry, including paintings and other artwork should be evaluated on an item-by-item basis.
• A number of restorers and art conservators are available, but not all restorers and conservators are qualified and competent to clean all items. In one instance, a Yamaha grand piano restoration expert may turn down the cleaning and restoration of Yamaha acoustical pianos, guitars, violins and percussion instruments. 
• When combustion byproducts, VOCs and heavy metals affect musical instruments, antiques and paintings for example, it requires specialized cleaning methods which are often more expensive, detailed and intricate to complete. 
• Many of the contents mentioned cannot be cleaned and restored in the home, where the restorer or conservator requires removing them to their place of business. 
• Before handling and moving for cleaning, restoration or conservation, an estimate of costs to clean, restore or conserve should be provided along with stated expectations.  

Credit: Patrick Moffett

Contents Conclusion:

• Many hard non-porous contents can be cleaned of combustion byproducts, VOCs and heavy metals, where there is less success in cleaning semi-porous contents and in most cases, there is limited success in cleaning porous contents. 
• Damaged contents are those that are heat damaged, where damage is visually apparent to the homeowner, restorer and adjuster that they are no longer repairable or economically restorable. 
• Damage also includes contents that are less physically or chemically altered, where a structural component, system or finish is not economically repairable to be brought back to a safe and functional condition. In documenting this condition, it may require experts to inspect and test. 
• When combustion byproducts and heavy metals cause corrosion in electrical and electronic components, contents are damaged until they can be inspected, serviced or replaced.
• When lead or other heavy metals are brought into the home by the urban fire, highly porous contents are damaged until qualitative post remediation verification (QPRV) results confirm contents are no longer damaged. 
• The cost to clean and restore certain contents may outweigh the replacement cost, where in those situations they should be replaced as damaged total loss items.
• Specialty items, such as important and valuable legal documents, medical records, books and manuscripts, collectibles, antiques, heirlooms Oriental rugs, musical instruments, computers, paintings and other artwork should be evaluated on an item-by-item basis, which requires interviewing experts, including discussing their expected results and costs.